Conditional Sentences

Conditional sentences are statements discussing known factors or hypothetical situations and their consequences. Complete conditional sentences contain a conditional clause (the if-clause) and the consequence.

It is important to use the correct structure for each of the different conditional sentences because they express varying meanings.

Use a comma after the “if-clause” when the “if-clause” precedes (comes before) the main clause.

If the main clause precedes the “if-clause”, no comma should be used in the sentence.

 

There are four types of conditional sentences.

1. Zero conditional sentences.

2. First conditional sentences.

3. Second conditional sentences.

4. Third conditional sentences.

 

Zero conditional sentences:

Zero conditional sentences express general truths – situations in which one thing always causes another.

When using the zero conditional, the correct tense to use in both clauses is the simple present tense. (A common mistake is to use the simple future tense.)

The words “if” and “when” can be used interchangeably in zero conditional sentences because the outcome will always be the same.

 

 

 

Sentence structure:

If + simple present tense, + simple present tense.

 

Examples:

1. If people eat too much, they get fat.

2. If babies are hungry, they cry.

3. If water reaches 100 degrees, it always boils.

4. Snakes bite if they are scared.

5. People die if they don’t eat.

 

First conditional sentences:

The first conditional sentences are used to express situations in which the outcome is likely (but not guaranteed) to happen in the future.

First conditional sentences are used to talk about things which might happen in the future.

In first conditional sentences, we use the simple present tense in the “if-clause” and the simple future tense in the main clause.

 

Sentence structure:

If + simple present tense, + simple future tense.

 

Examples:

1. If you take rest, you will feel better.

2. If I have enough money, I will buy new clothes.

3. If it rains, I will not go to the party.

4. If you come early, we will go for a walk.

 

A common mistake is to use the simple future tense in the “if-clause”.

 

 

Second conditional sentences:

The second conditional sentences are used for expressing outcomes that are completely unrealistic or will not likely happen in the future.

Second conditional sentences are used to talk about things in the future which are probably not true or, to talk about something in the present which is impossible.

The correct way to structure second conditional sentences is to use the simple past tense in the “if-clause” and an auxiliary modal verb (e.g. would, could, should, might) in the main clause.

 

Sentence structure:

If + simple past, + sub + would + v1 + obj.

 

Examples:

1. If I won the lottery, I would buy a big house.

2. If I were you, I would work hard.

3. If I owned a zoo, I might let people interact with the animals more.

 

A common mistake is to use the simple present tense in the “if-clause”.

 

 

 

 

Third conditional sentences:

The third conditional sentences are used to explain that present circumstances would be different if something different had happened in the past.

The third conditional sentences are used to talk about unreal situations in the past or, to talk about things which did not happen in the past.

The third conditional sentences are used to talk about impossible conditions because they happened in the past and we can not change them.

These sentences also express regret.

 

 

Sentence structure:

If + past perfect tense, + sub + would/could/might + have + past participle (v3) + obj.

 

Examples:

1. If you had driven more carefully, you would not have had an accident.

2. If she had saved her money, she could have bought a computer.

3. If it had snowed, we could have gone skiing.

4. If we had played better, we could have won the game.

5. If they had spoken a bit slower, I would have understood them.

 

A common mistake is to use would have + past participle in the “if-clause”. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Articles

 

The words a or an and the are called Articles.

There are two Articles – a or an and the.

A or an is called the Indefinite Article, because it usually leaves indefinite the person or thing spoken of.

Example: a teacher; that is, any teacher.

The is called the Definite Article, because it normally points out some particular person or thing.

Example: He saw the teacher; meaning some particular teacher.

 

The indefinite article is used before singular countable nouns.

Examples: a ball, an orange, a woman etc.

 

The definite article is used before singular countable nouns, plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns.

Examples: the pen, the pens, the milk etc.

 

A or An:

The choice between a and an is determined by sound. Before a word beginning with a vowel sound an is used.

Examples: an elephant, an ink-pad, an orange, an hour, an honest man, an heir etc.

 

The words honest, hour, heir begin with a vowel sound, as the initial consonant h is not pronounced.

 

 

Before a word beginning with a consonant sound a is used.

Examples: a boy, a girl, a deer, a woman, a horse, etc.

Also, a university, a union, a European, a unicorn, a useful article etc. because although these words (union, university, European) begin with a vowel but these vowels have a consonant sound, that of yu.

 

Similarly, we say: a one-dollar coin, such a one, a one-eyed man etc. because the word one begins with the consonant sound of w.

 

Use of the Definite Article:

The Definite Article is used:

1. When we talk about a particular person or thing, or one already referred to (that is, when it is clear from the context which one we mean).

Examples:

a. The phone you want is out of stock. (Which phone? The one you want)

b. Let’s go to the park. (= the park in this city)

c. The boy yelled. (the boy already talked about)

 

2. When a Singular noun is meant to represent a whole class.

Examples:

a. The lion is a ferocious animal.

b. The cow is a gentle animal.

c. The rose is the sweetest of all flowers.

 

 

 

 

The two nouns man and woman can be used in a general sense without either article.

Examples:

1. Man is the only animal that uses fire.

2. Woman is man’s mate.

 

But in present-day English a man and a woman (or men and women) are more usual.

Example: A woman is more patient than a man.

 

3. Before some proper nouns, viz., these kind of place-names:

a. oceans and seas, e.g. the Pacific, the Black Sea.

b. rivers, e.g. the Ganges, the Nile.

c. canals, e.g. the Suez Canal.

d. deserts, e.g. the Sahara.

e. groups of islands, e.g. the West Indies.

f. mountain-ranges, e.g. the Himalayas, the Alps.

g. a very few names of countries, which include words like “republic” and “kingdom”, e.g. the United Kingdom, the United States of America, the Netherlands.

 

4. Before the names of certain books.

Examples: The vedas, the Puranas, the Ramayana, the Bible, the Quran.

 

5. Before names of things unique of their kind.

Examples: the sun, the sky, the ocean, the sea, the earth.

 

6. Before a proper noun when it is qualified by an adjective.

Examples: The great Caesar, the immortal Shakespeare.

 

7. With superlatives.

Examples: The best, the fastest, the smallest.

 

8. With ordinals.

Examples: The first man to arrive, the ninth chapter of the book.

 

9. Before musical instruments.

Examples: The flute, the piano, the cello.

 

10. Before an adjective when the noun is understood.

Examples: The poor, the rich.

 

11. Before a noun (with emphasis) to give it the force of a superlative.

Example: The Verb is the word (= the chief word) in a sentence.

 

Use of the indefinite article:

The indefinite article is used:

1. In its original numerical sense of one.

Examples:

a. Twelve inches make a foot.

b. Not a word was said.

c. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

 

2. In the vague sense of a certain.

Examples:

a. A Mayank Tripathi (= a certain person named Mayank Tripathi) was arrested by the police.

b. One evening a beggar came to my door.

 

3. In the sense of “any”, to single out an individual as the representative of a class.

Examples:

a. A student should obey his teacher.

b. A cow is a useful animal.

 

4. To make a common noun of a proper noun.

Example: A Bhagat Singh came to free India (A Bhagat Singh = a brave man).

 

Omission of Articles:

The article is omitted:

1. Before names of substances and abstract nouns (i.e. uncountable nouns) used in a general sense.

Examples:

a. Sugar is bad for your teeth.

b. Gold is a precious metal.

c. Wisdom is the gift of heaven.

d. Honesty is the best policy.

 

 

 

Note: Uncountable nouns take “the” when used in a particular sense (especially when qualified by an adjective or adjectival phrase or clause)

Examples:

a. Would you pass me the sugar? (= the sugar on the table)

b. The wisdom of Socrates is great.

c. I still remember the kindness with which he treated me.

 

2. Before plural countable nouns in a general sense.

Examples:

a. Children like chocolates.

b. Computers are used in many offices.

 

Note: Such nouns take the when used with a particular meaning.

Example: Where are the children? (= our children)

 

3. Before most proper nouns (except those referred to earlier).

Examples:

a. Names of people.

Examples: Rahul, Pankaj, Afsana.

 

b. Names of continents, countries, cities etc.

Examples: Europe, India, Mumbai.

 

c. Names of individual mountains and islands, lakes, hills.

Examples: Mount Everest, Baikal lake.

 

 

 

4. Before names of meals.

Examples: Lunch, dinner. (At what time do you have dinner? Lunch is ready.)

 

5. Before languages.

Examples: English, Russian, French. (We are studying English.)

 

6. Before school, college, university, church, bed, hospital, prison when these places are visited for their primary purpose.

Examples:

a. I learnt Sanskrit at school.

b. We go to church on Sundays.

c. He stays in bed till seven every morning.

d. She is still in hospital.

 

Note: The is used with these words when we refer to them as a definite place, building or object rather than to the normal activity that goes on there.

Examples:

a. The school is near my home.

b. I met her at the church.

c. The bed is new.

d. I went to the hospital to see my uncle.

 

7. Before names of relations, like father, mother, aunt, uncle, and also cook and nurse, meaning “our cook”, “our nurse”.

Examples:

 

a. Father has returned.

b. Uncle wants to see you.

c. Cook has given notice.

 

8. Before predicative nouns denoting a unique position, i.e., a position that is normally held at one time by one person only.

Examples:

a. He was elected chairman of the board.

b. Mr. Sharma became Principal of the college in 1969.

 

9. In certain phrases consisting of a transitive verb followed by its object.

Examples: To catch fire, to take breath, to give battle, to send word, to lay siege, to set sail, to lose heart, to leave home, to take offence.

 

10. In certain phrases consisting of a preposition followed by its object.

Examples: At home, in hand, in debt, by day, by night, at daybreak, at sunrise, at noon, on demand, by land, at dinner, above ground.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Causative Verbs

 

The causatives are verbs that are used to indicate that one person causes another person to do something for the first person. One can cause somebody to do something for him/her by asking, requesting or forcing the person.

These are the causative verbs: Have, Get, Make and Let.

 

Have: Structures and uses

Structure 1:

Sub + have (any tense) + object (usually person) + v1 + other words.

Examples:

1. Bill had Lisa clean the house.

2. James always has me do his work.

3. Ronnie will have John prepare food.

 

Structure 2:

Sub + have (any tense) + object (usually thing) + v3 (past participle) + other words.

Examples:

1. Mary had her car washed.

2. She always had her work done.

3. Ronnie will have her food prepared.

 

Get: Structures and uses

Structure 1:

Sub + get (any tense) + + obj (usually person) + infinitive with to + other words.

Examples:

1. John got Alex to clean the house.

2. She always gets me to do her work.

3. Ronnie will get me to prepare food.

 

Structure 2:

Sub + get (any tense) + obj (usually thing) + v3 (past participle) + other words.

Examples:

1. John got his house cleaned.

2. She always gets her work done.

3. Ronnie will get her food prepared.

 

Make: Structure and uses

Make is stronger than “have” and “get.” It constitutes only one structure as it does not take anything passive as its object.

Structure:

Sub + make (any tense) + obj (always person) + v1 + other words.

Examples:

1. James made me carry his bag.

2. Ronnie will make me prepare food.

3. I made him clean the house.

4. He always makes me laugh.

 

5. Don’t make her cry.

 

Let: Structure and uses

Structure:

Sub + let (any tense) + obj + v1 + other words.

Examples:

1. He lets his wife focus on her career.

2. Will you let me use your computer?

3. The trainer let me drink some water after the workout.

 

Other causative verbs: Help, cause, allow, enable, force, require, persuade etc.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Past Modal Verbs

 

Modal verbs in the past are used to:

1. Talk about a possibility

2. Express a regret

3. Express disbelief

4. Make a recommendation or criticism.

The most frequent use of modal verbs in the past is to talk about past situations that were possible but did not happen. In other words, they tell us what could have, would have and should have happened.

Let’s learn how “must”, “could”, “would’, “should’, “may” and “might” are used in the past.

These modal verbs are used with “have’ + past participle (v3) to talk about supposition or speculation regarding a past event.

 

Must have:

We use must have + past participle (v3) when we feel sure about what happened.

Examples:

1. The dog has escaped – I must have left the door open by mistake.

2. Lisa has left her handbag here – she must have left in a hurry.

3. It must have been difficult for him to live alone for so many years.

 

To form the negative, use “not” between “must” and “have”.

Examples:

1. It must not have been difficult for him.

2. She must not have done the dishes.

 

 

Could have:

We use could have + past participle (v3) to express that something was possible in the past but it did not happen.

Examples:

1. I could have gone directly to the college, but I decided to travel for a year.

2. He could have helped me, but he didn’t.

3. We could have left the party earlier.

 

To form the negative, use “not” between “could” and “have”.

Examples:

1. I couldn’t have said it better myself.

2. I couldn’t have done it without you.

 

Would have:

We use would have + past participle (v3) to show that you wanted to do something, but you could not.

Examples:

1. I would have called, but there was no phone service.

2. I would have lent you the money, but I didn’t have any myself.

3. I would have gone to the party, but I was tired.

 

The negative “would not have’ is part of the third conditional sentence.

Example: If I had not studied hard, I wouldn’t have passed the examination.

 

 

Should Have:

We use should have + past participle (v3) to mean that something did not happen, but we wish it had happened.

Examples:

1. I should have woken up earlier.

2. You should have helped her.

3. They should have come on time.

 

To form the negative, use “not” between “should” and “have”.

Examples:

1. You should not have slapped him.

2. He should not have done it.

 

May Have / Might Have:

We use “may have” or “might have” when we think it’s possible that something happened.

Examples:

1. I think I may have left the air conditioning on.

2. Police think the suspect may have left the country using a fake passport.

3. The car came around the corner so fast that I might have been killed.

 

Note: “May have” is more formal than “might have”.

 

 

 

 

To form the negative, use “not” between “may/might” and “have”.

Examples:

1. He may not have eaten the apples.

2. They might not have understood the message.

 

Modal Perfect Continuous:

We use the modal perfect continuous tense for speculations about a continuous action in the past.

Example: No one knows why he crashed the car. He may have been drinking and driving.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Noun Clause

 

A noun clause is a clause that plays the role of a noun.

 

Noun clauses are dependent clauses that can replace a noun in the sentence.

 

A noun clause is a dependent clause that takes the place of any noun in the sentence, whether they are subjects, objects, or subject complements.

 

A noun clause functions as a noun in a sentence. It follows a linking or copular verb to describe or modify the subject of the sentence. Unlike noun phrases, noun clauses contain both a subject and a verb.

 

A noun clause can be a subject, an object, or a complement.

 

Noun clauses function to add more details to a sentence.

 

If you are not sure whether a clause is a noun clause, try replacing it with other nouns or pronouns.

 

Noun clauses almost always start with one of these words:

How, that, what, whatever, when, where, whether, which, whichever, who, whoever, whom, whomever, why.

 

Lots of noun clauses start with “that”, “how” or with a “wh” word (i.e., “what”, “who”, “which”, “when”, “where” or “why”).

Examples:

1.     I know that it happened.

 

2. I know how it happened.

3. I know why it happened.

4. John encouraged Leela to remember who she was. (The noun clause is an indirect object of the verb, encouraged.)

5. Do you know what time it is?

6. Bob can invite whomever he chooses.

7. I don’t understand what you’re talking about.

8. Whether Tom accepts the job or not is his business.

A great way to check whether a phrase or clause is functioning as a noun is to have a go at replacing it with a pronoun. If you can, your phrase or clause is functioning as a noun.

 

Easy examples:

1. I know that the story is true.

2. I saw how the accident happened.

3. I understand why it was necessary.

4. I know who said that.

 

More examples:

1. Whoever smelt it dealt it. (The noun clause is a subject.)

2. My command is whatever you wish. (The noun clause is a subject complement.)

3. I will give what you said some thought. (The noun clause is an indirect object.)

 

Introductory "It"

 

We use introductory “it” to:

1.To tell the time:

Examples:

a. It is 3 o’clock.

b. It is half past four.

c. It is a quarter past three.

d. It is a quarter to ten.

e. It is morning now.

Note: In these sentences, the words indicating time are subjects. “It” is only introducing them. This is called the introductory use of “it”.

 

2. For non-living things and animals:

Examples:

a. It is a table.

b. It is a cat.

c. It is an elephant.

 

3. For telling the day/date/month/year/season:

Examples:

a. It is Monday today.

b. It is the month of March.

c. It was winter.

d. It was the third year.

 

4. For activities related to nature:

Examples:

a. It is raining.

b. It is snowing.

c. It is drizzling.

d. It is thundering.

e. It is very hot today.

f. It was very cold that day.

g. It was a dark night.

 

5. Special uses of “it”:

Examples:

a. It is the boy who has stolen my pen.

b. It is John who has done it.

c. Who was it that broke my pen?

d. It is we who are helpful.

e. Are it they?

 

6. Negative and Interrogative sentences:

Examples:

a. Is it that girl who has topped the examination?

b. It is not that girl who has broken my chair.

c. It was not only Tom who committed the theft.

d. Is it difficult to learn English?

e. Is it not she who has written this book?

As and Like

 

“As + noun” means “in the role of’.

Example: As your brother, I’ll help you as much as I can. (The speaker is the listener’s brother.)

 

“As” is used to describe the function of a person or object.

Example: He works as a teacher. He was using the pen as a knife.

 

“As” can also be used as a conjunction.

Example: Nobody loves me as you do.

 

“Like + noun” means “similar to” or “in the same way as”.

Example: Like your brother, I’ll help you as much as I can. (The speaker is not the brother but wishes to act in the similar way to the brother.)

 

“Like” is used as a preposition. It is used to compare two things.

Example: She looks like her mother. That house looks like a palace.

 

“Like” can also be used like a conjunction. (Connecting two clauses.)

Example: She looked like she was about to cry.